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Standard Model · Chapters 84–123 ✅ Complete
Chapter 84: The Up Quark in Hz.
The up quark is the lightest quark — a color phase-locked mode with mass $f_u = m_u c^2 / h \approx 5.3 \times 10^{20}$ Hz. Charge = $+2/3 e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Color = red, green, or blue (phase coupling to SU(3)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). Its antiparticle is the $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode.
Chapter 85: The Down Quark in Hz.
The down quark is the second-lightest quark — a color phase-locked mode with mass $f_d = m_d c^2 / h \approx 1.3 \times 10^{21}$ Hz. Charge = $-1/3 e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Color = red, green, or blue (phase coupling to SU(3)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). Its antiparticle is the $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode.
Chapter 86: The Charm Quark in Hz.
The charm quark is the third-lightest quark — a heavy flavor color phase-locked mode with mass $f_c = m_c c^2 / h \approx 3.07 \times 10^{23}$ Hz. Charge = $+2/3 e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Color = red, green, or blue (phase coupling to SU(3)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). Its antiparticle is the $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode.
Chapter 87: The Strange Quark in Hz.
The strange quark is the fourth-lightest quark — a second-generation down-type color phase-locked mode with mass $f_s = m_s c^2 / h \approx 2.3 \times 10^{22}$ Hz. Charge = $-1/3 e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Color = red, green, or blue (phase coupling to SU(3)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). Its antiparticle is the $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode. Strangeness is a phase quantum number.
Chapter 88: The Top Quark in Hz.
The top quark is the heaviest quark — a third-generation up-type color phase-locked mode with mass $f_t = m_t c^2 / h \approx 4.17 \times 10^{25}$ Hz. Charge = $+2/3 e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Color = red, green, or blue (phase coupling to SU(3)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). Its antiparticle is the $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode. The top quark decays via $t \to b + W^+$ before hadronization.
Chapter 89: The Bottom Quark in Hz.
The bottom quark is the fifth quark and the heaviest down-type quark — a third-generation down-type color phase-locked mode with mass $f_b = m_b c^2 / h \approx 1.01 \times 10^{24}$ Hz. Charge = $-1/3 e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Color = red, green, or blue (phase coupling to SU(3)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). Its antiparticle is the $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode. The bottom quark decays via $b \to c + W^-$ and is essential for CP violation.
Chapter 90: The Anti-Up Quark in Hz.
The anti-up quark is the antiparticle of the up quark — an $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode with mass $-f_u \approx -5.3 \times 10^{20}$ Hz. Charge = $-2/3 e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Anti-color = anti-red, anti-green, or anti-blue (phase coupling to SU(3)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). It annihilates with the up quark via phase cancellation.
Chapter 91: The Anti-Down Quark in Hz.
The anti-down quark is the antiparticle of the down quark — an $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode with mass $-f_d \approx -1.3 \times 10^{21}$ Hz. Charge = $+1/3 e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Anti-color = anti-red, anti-green, or anti-blue (phase coupling to SU(3)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). It annihilates with the down quark via phase cancellation.
Chapter 92: The Anti-Charm Quark in Hz.
The anti-charm quark is the antiparticle of the charm quark — an $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode with mass $-f_c \approx -3.07 \times 10^{23}$ Hz. Charge = $-2/3 e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Anti-color = anti-red, anti-green, or anti-blue (phase coupling to SU(3)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). It annihilates with the charm quark via phase cancellation.
Chapter 93: The Anti-Strange Quark in Hz.
The anti-strange quark is the antiparticle of the strange quark — an $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode with mass $-f_s \approx -2.3 \times 10^{22}$ Hz. Charge = $+1/3 e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Anti-color = anti-red, anti-green, or anti-blue (phase coupling to SU(3)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). Anti-strangeness = $+1$ — the opposite phase quantum number. It annihilates with the strange quark via phase cancellation.
Chapter 94: The Anti-Top Quark in Hz.
The anti-top quark is the antiparticle of the top quark — an $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode with mass $-f_t \approx -4.17 \times 10^{25}$ Hz. Charge = $-2/3 e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Anti-color = anti-red, anti-green, or anti-blue (phase coupling to SU(3)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). It decays via $\bar{t} \to \bar{b} + W^-$ before hadronization. It is the heaviest, shortest-lived antiquark in the Standard Model.
Chapter 95: The Anti-Bottom Quark in Hz.
The anti-bottom quark is the antiparticle of the bottom quark — an $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode with mass $-f_b \approx -1.01 \times 10^{24}$ Hz. Charge = $+1/3 e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Anti-color = anti-red, anti-green, or anti-blue (phase coupling to SU(3)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). It decays via $\bar{b} \to \bar{c} + W^+$ and is the foundation of anti-B mesons and CP violation in the antiquark sector.
Chapter 96: The Electron in Hz.
The electron is the lightest charged lepton — a phase-locked mode with mass $f_e = m_e c^2 / h \approx 1.24 \times 10^{20}$ Hz. Charge = $-e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). Its antiparticle is the positron — the $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode. The electron is the fundamental phase-locked mode of QED and the building block of atoms.
Chapter 97: The Muon in Hz.
The muon is the second-generation charged lepton — a heavier phase-locked mode with mass $f_\mu = m_\mu c^2 / h \approx 2.55 \times 10^{22}$ Hz. Charge = $-e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). Its antiparticle is the anti-muon — the $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode. The muon decays weakly via $\mu^- \to e^- + \bar{\nu}_e + \nu_\mu$ with a lifetime of $2.2 \times 10^{-6}$ s.
Chapter 98: The Tau in Hz.
The tau is the third-generation charged lepton — the heaviest lepton, a phase-locked mode with mass $f_\tau = m_\tau c^2 / h \approx 4.29 \times 10^{23}$ Hz. Charge = $-e$ (phase coupling to U(1)). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). Its antiparticle is the anti-tau — the $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode. The tau decays weakly via $\tau^- \to e^- + \bar{\nu}_e + \nu_\tau$ or $\mu^- + \bar{\nu}_\mu + \nu_\tau$ with a lifetime of $2.9 \times 10^{-13}$ s.
Chapter 99: The Positron in Hz.
The positron is the antiparticle of the electron — an $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode with mass $-f_e \approx -1.24 \times 10^{20}$ Hz. Charge = $+e$ (phase coupling to U(1) with opposite sign). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). It is the lightest antilepton, annihilating with the electron via phase cancellation to produce photons. It was discovered in 1932 by Carl Anderson.
Chapter 100: The Anti-Muon in Hz.
The anti-muon is the antiparticle of the muon — an $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode with mass $-f_\mu \approx -2.55 \times 10^{22}$ Hz. Charge = $+e$ (phase coupling to U(1) with opposite sign). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). It is the second-generation antilepton, annihilating with the muon via phase cancellation. It decays weakly via $\mu^+ \to e^+ + \nu_e + \bar{\nu}_\mu$ with a lifetime of $2.2 \times 10^{-6}$ s.
Chapter 101: The Anti-Tau in Hz.
The anti-tau is the antiparticle of the tau — an $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode with mass $-f_\tau \approx -4.29 \times 10^{23}$ Hz. Charge = $+e$ (phase coupling to U(1) with opposite sign). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). It is the heaviest antilepton, annihilating with the tau via phase cancellation. It decays weakly via $\tau^+ \to e^+ + \nu_e + \bar{\nu}_\tau$ or $\mu^+ + \nu_\mu + \bar{\nu}_\tau$ with a lifetime of $2.9 \times 10^{-13}$ s.
Chapter 102: The Electron Neutrino in Hz.
The electron neutrino is the first-generation neutrino — a weakly phase-locked mode with mass $f_{\nu_e} = m_{\nu_e} c^2 / h \lesssim 10^9$ Hz (upper bound). Charge = 0 (no U(1) phase coupling). Weak charge = phase coupling to SU(2). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). Its antiparticle is the electron antineutrino — the $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode. The electron neutrino is emitted in beta decay: $n \to p + e^- + \bar{\nu}_e$.
Chapter 103: The Muon Neutrino in Hz.
The muon neutrino is the second-generation neutrino — a weakly phase-locked mode with mass $f_{\nu_\mu} = m_{\nu_\mu} c^2 / h \lesssim 10^9$ Hz (upper bound). Charge = 0 (no U(1) phase coupling). Weak charge = phase coupling to SU(2). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). Its antiparticle is the muon antineutrino — the $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode. The muon neutrino is emitted in muon decay: $\mu^- \to e^- + \bar{\nu}_e + \nu_\mu$.
Chapter 104: The Tau Neutrino in Hz.
The tau neutrino is the third-generation neutrino — a weakly phase-locked mode with mass $f_{\nu_\tau} = m_{\nu_\tau} c^2 / h \lesssim 10^9$ Hz (upper bound). Charge = 0 (no U(1) phase coupling). Weak charge = phase coupling to SU(2). Spin = $1/2$ (internal phase winding). Its antiparticle is the tau antineutrino — the $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode. The tau neutrino is emitted in tau decay: $\tau^- \to e^- + \bar{\nu}_e + \nu_\tau$ or $\mu^- + \bar{\nu}_\mu + \nu_\tau$.
Chapter 105: The Photon in Hz.
The photon is a massless U(1) phase fluctuation — the gauge boson of QED, the carrier of the electromagnetic force, the quantum of light. Frequency $f = c/\lambda$, angular frequency $\omega = ck$. Charge = 0 (no U(1) phase coupling to itself — it is the U(1) phase field). Spin = 1 (internal phase vector). It has no antiparticle — it is its own antiparticle.
Chapter 106: The Gluons in Hz.
The gluons are eight massless SU(3) phase fluctuations — the gauge bosons of QCD, the carriers of the strong force. They carry color charge and self-interact (non-Abelian phase coupling). They mediate the strong interaction, binding quarks into hadrons. They are massless but confined: the color phase coupling diverges at low frequencies (confinement) and vanishes at high frequencies (asymptotic freedom).
Chapter 107: The W+ Boson in Hz.
The W+ boson is the massive gauge boson of the weak force — an SU(2) phase-locked mode with mass $f_W = m_W c^2 / h \approx 3.05 \times 10^{25}$ Hz. Charge = $+e$ (phase coupling to U(1) with positive sign). Weak charge = SU(2) phase coupling. Spin = 1 (internal phase vector). The W+ boson mediates charged-current weak interactions, enabling flavor changes, beta decay, and nuclear fusion. It was discovered at CERN in 1983.
Chapter 108: The W- Boson in Hz.
The W- boson is the antiparticle of the W+ boson — an $f < 0$ phase-inverted mode with mass $-f_W \approx -3.05 \times 10^{25}$ Hz. Charge = $-e$ (phase coupling to U(1) with negative sign). Weak charge = SU(2) phase coupling. Spin = 1 (internal phase vector). The W- boson mediates charged-current weak interactions with opposite charge, enabling processes like $\mu^- \to e^- + \bar{\nu}_e + \nu_\mu$ and beta decay ($n \to p + e^- + \bar{\nu}_e$).
Chapter 109: The Z Boson in Hz.
The Z boson is the neutral massive gauge boson of the weak force — an SU(2) phase-locked mode with mass $f_Z = m_Z c^2 / h \approx 3.46 \times 10^{25}$ Hz. Charge = 0 (no U(1) phase coupling). Weak charge = SU(2) phase coupling. Spin = 1 (internal phase vector). The Z boson mediates neutral-current weak interactions, such as neutrino scattering. It was discovered at CERN in 1983. It is its own antiparticle.
Chapter 110: The Higgs Boson in Hz.
The Higgs boson is the quantum excitation of the Higgs field — a scalar phase mode with mass $f_H = m_H c^2 / h \approx 3.03 \times 10^{25}$ Hz. Charge = 0 (no U(1) phase coupling). Spin = 0 (scalar — no internal phase winding). It is the mechanism by which elementary particles acquire mass via spontaneous symmetry breaking. Discovered on 4 July 2012 at CERN by the ATLAS and CMS experiments, it was the final missing piece of the Standard Model.
Chapter 111: The Higgs Mechanism in Hz.
The Higgs Mechanism is the process by which particles acquire mass: spontaneous symmetry breaking via phase selection. The Higgs field phase-locks, giving mass to the W and Z bosons and to fermions via Yukawa coupling. Goldstone bosons are absorbed as the longitudinal polarization modes of massive gauge bosons. The mechanism is the origin of mass in the Standard Model — phase-locking that transforms massless modes into massive phase-locked modes.
Chapter 112: Electroweak Unification in Hz.
Electroweak Unification is the unification of the electromagnetic and weak forces into a single electroweak force — an SU(2) × U(1) phase structure. The Higgs mechanism breaks the symmetry, producing the W+, W-, Z bosons (massive) and the photon (massless). Proposed by Glashow, Weinberg, and Salam, the theory was confirmed by the discovery of neutral currents at CERN in 1973 and the W and Z bosons in 1983. It is one of the crowning achievements of 20th-century physics.
Chapter 113: The CKM Matrix in Hz.
The CKM Matrix describes quark mixing between generations via the weak interaction — phase rotations in flavor space. It contains three angles and one complex phase. The complex phase is the origin of CP violation, explaining the matter-antimatter asymmetry of the universe. Cabibbo introduced the mixing in 1963; Kobayashi and Maskawa extended it to three generations in 1973, predicting the existence of the charm, bottom, and top quarks. They were awarded the 2008 Nobel Prize.
Chapter 114: Neutrino Oscillations in Hz.
Neutrino oscillations are phase interference between mass eigenstates — neutrinos change flavor as they propagate because their mass eigenstates have different phase velocities. The Pontecorvo-Maki-Nakagawa-Sakata (PMNS) matrix describes neutrino mixing. The discovery of neutrino oscillations at Super-Kamiokande (1998), SNO (2001), and KamLAND (2002) proved that neutrinos have mass, requiring physics beyond the Standard Model.
Chapter 115: CP Violation in Hz.
CP Violation is the difference between matter and antimatter behavior — a phase mismatch in the weak interaction. It was discovered in 1964 by Cronin and Fitch in $K^0 \to \pi^+ \pi^-$ decays, earning them the 1980 Nobel Prize. The phase mismatch is encoded in the CKM matrix (quarks) and PMNS matrix (neutrinos). CP violation is the key to understanding why the universe is made of matter rather than antimatter.
Chapter 116: Antimatter in Hz.
Antimatter is the $f < 0$ phase-inverted mirror of matter — the analytic continuation of the Hz field through $f = 0$. Every particle has an antiparticle counterpart: electron ↔ positron, quark ↔ antiquark, neutrino ↔ antineutrino. Antimatter was predicted by Paul Dirac in 1928 and discovered by Carl Anderson in 1932 (positron). CPT symmetry ensures that antimatter has the same mass and lifetime as matter.
Chapter 117: Baryogenesis in Hz.
Baryogenesis is the origin of the matter-antimatter asymmetry — the creation of an imbalance between $f > 0$ and $f < 0$ phase modes. The Sakharov conditions (1967) require CP violation, baryon number violation, and departure from thermal equilibrium. Electroweak baryogenesis at the electroweak phase transition is one possible mechanism. Without baryogenesis, we would not exist.
Chapter 118: The Gauge Kinetic Terms — The Field Strengths of the Standard Model in Hz.
The Gauge Kinetic Terms are the first three terms of the Standard Model Lagrangian — the kinetic energies of the gauge bosons. In Hz: these are the phase curvature terms of the Hz field. The gluon term is SU(3) phase curvature: $-\frac{1}{4}G_{\mu\nu}^a G^{a\mu\nu}$. The weak term is SU(2) phase curvature: $-\frac{1}{4}W_{\mu\nu}^i W^{i\mu\nu}$. The hypercharge term is U(1) phase curvature: $-\frac{1}{4}B_{\mu\nu}B^{\mu\nu}$.
Chapter 119: The Fermion Kinetic Terms — The Dirac Term in Hz.
The Fermion Kinetic Terms are the second term of the Standard Model Lagrangian — the Dirac term: $\bar{\psi} i \gamma^\mu D_\mu \psi$. In Hz: the phase kinetic energy of fermion modes — the propagation of phase-locked excitations. The covariant derivative includes the gauge interactions, coupling fermions to gluons (SU(3)), weak bosons (SU(2)), and hypercharge (U(1)).
Chapter 120: The Gauge Interactions — Fermion Couplings to Gauge Bosons in Hz.
The Gauge Interactions are the couplings between fermions and gauge bosons — contained in the covariant derivative expansion. In Hz: phase-locking between fermion modes and gauge phase fields. The interaction terms are: $g_s \bar{\psi} G_\mu T^a \psi$ (gluons, SU(3)), $g \bar{\psi} W_\mu^i T^i \psi$ (weak bosons, SU(2)), and $g' \bar{\psi} B_\mu Y \psi$ (hypercharge, U(1)). After electroweak symmetry breaking, these become electromagnetic, charged weak, and neutral weak interactions.
Chapter 121: The Higgs Term — The Higgs Kinetic Term and Mexican Hat Potential in Hz.
The Higgs Term is the fourth term of the Standard Model Lagrangian: $(D_\mu \phi)^\dagger (D^\mu \phi) - V(\phi)$. In Hz: the phase kinetic energy of the scalar phase field and the phase energy landscape $V(\phi) = -\frac{1}{2}\mu^2 \phi^2 + \frac{1}{4}\lambda \phi^4$ — the Mexican hat potential. The potential breaks the electroweak symmetry through phase selection, giving mass to the W and Z bosons.
Chapter 122: The Yukawa Couplings — Fermion Masses and Flavor Mixing in Hz.
The Yukawa Couplings are the fifth term of the Standard Model Lagrangian: $-y_{ij} \bar{\psi}_{L,i} \phi \psi_{R,j} + \text{h.c.}$. In Hz: phase-locking between fermion modes and the Higgs scalar phase field. When the Higgs field acquires its VEV, the Yukawa couplings become fermion masses: $m_f = y_f v / \sqrt{2}$ — the Compton frequency $f_f = y_f v / \sqrt{2} \cdot c^2 / h$. The Yukawa matrix describes flavor mixing (CKM for quarks, PMNS for leptons).
Chapter 123: The QCD Theta Term — The Topological Term and the Strong CP Problem in Hz.
The QCD Theta Term is the sixth and final term of the Standard Model Lagrangian — $\theta \frac{g_s^2}{32\pi^2} G_{\mu\nu}^a \tilde{G}^{a\mu\nu}$. In Hz: a topological phase term in the SU(3) color phase field. It violates CP symmetry in QCD if $\theta \neq 0$. The $\theta$ parameter is constrained to be $\theta \lesssim 10^{-10}$ by the neutron electric dipole moment. The strong CP problem is the mystery of why $\theta$ is so small. The axion is a hypothetical particle that would dynamically set $\theta = 0$. This term completes the Standard Model Lagrangian — the final piece of the puzzle.